Throughout the twentieth century, the rapidly growing employment of women in professional work. They have been actively involved in all spheres of activity, not left without attention and management. By the end of 90-ies in the United States has always not worked only 11 % of women in Russia this figure is even lower. More than 80 % of workers in the healthcare and public power in our country - women. In the field of education, this figure is closer to 70 %. Among scientific workers, women make up about 40 % of the total. The real contribution of women's labor in production is huge.
However, despite the high employment of women, it is now a reverse trend - the outflow of women from production. B. Friden (1994) illustrates this movement: "More than strange paradox is the fact that today, when a woman in America finally is able to choose any profession, the expression "working woman" has become something of a curse; that as higher education becomes available to any who have to it's ability, it causes such a suspicion; that more and more girls graduate from high school and College only to get married and have children; that in modern society women are given so many opportunities, and they were working hard to limit myself to only one role.
The distribution of men and women across sectors is not uniform, but preferences in professional orientation are observed from a very early age. Girls are more likely to show interest in the human face, nature, family relationships, and boys to the technique, geometric shapes, industrial achievements. Girls are more prone to empathy, compassion. For boys the norm is considered to be moderately aggressive manifestations, determination, risk propensity highest mobility in comparison with the girls. . . Kovalev (1988) notes that at the age of 1, 5 - 2 years clearly manifested by the greater tendency of boys to transformative activity, while girls prefer to be active within the established framework. Girls this age often pay attention on the quality and usefulness of objects, and the boys tend to the analysis of the internal mechanisms and meaning of phenomena. Social environment presents to boys requirement of composure, restrained emotion. Girls may be allowed greater expression of feelings, cultivated weakness, emotion. Child from birth begin to influence sex-role stereotypes.
Biographical studies of successful women managers showed that the majority of these women were the only or eldest child, grew up in an intact family and had a good relationship with his father. The parents of the girls had a fairly high level of education. Future teacher often took part in traditionally male spheres of activity and soon learned from their fathers deliberately to weigh your chances of success or defeat, began to experience the joy of the ability to take risks. In the process of professional formation, these women used the competence as the most important factor of self-assertion, has sought to surpass the requirements of their positions. With men who were their immediate leaders, women had established good and lasting friendships.
In planning their own career women are more likely to focus on the current state of Affairs, rather than on the future development. As a rule, women are later satisfied with their careers than men, but making a career for women is so much more. Professional women allocate
three main types of careers:
linear - constant household;
- intermittent - woman for some time stops working for my family, and then returns to work;
parallel - a woman works and takes care of the household.
Exist
differences in motivation between men and women. Studies show that women are characterized by big differences motives, and for men - the desire for the realization of the higher needs (pyramid A. Maslow). The complexity of meeting the needs of self-realization in women lead to frequent internal frustration and, as a consequence, absenteeism due to illness and other reasons. This is due to the contradictory attitudes of women to success in professional and family spheres.
Surveys of women show that their professional identity is primarily attracted to the possibility of communication, social interaction and relations in the organization. Focus on personal, comfortable relationship in production can compensate for the dissatisfaction with wages or dysfunctional family relationships. Perhaps, as underlined by the American psychologist, Craig that at least part of women's interpersonal relationships at work therefore particularly significant that help them in identifying their professional self-concept. In addition, social support at work is associated with a lower rate of depression and physical ailments in women. On the second place in importance is the material wages and only in the third - interest in the content of professional activity.
Among the various
landmarks career men are more likely to seek entrepreneurial activity, management, competition, need to create a new product, service or organization. Women in the work often focused on independence, stability, security, professional competence. Important reasons for the choice of employment for women are the working conditions, sanitary-hygienic characteristics of the activity, the organization of work.
Women are more likely
perceived career as a personal growth as self-realization, and men relate to career as a promising and prestigious positions. Men relate work with promotion, while women share two concepts: work and career. There are some differences, primarily in men's and women's dreams. If male dreams about the future in General are homogeneous in nature and related to the work, women's dreams often inherent fragmentation, they seek to combine her career and marriage. While women differently distribute their plans against the traditional roles of wife and mother and career prospects, leaning one way or the other, alternating between the goals or trying to combine them.
The success of the women depends largely on the availability of a mentor. The problem is that not too many women occupy a position that allows them to lead, to give advice or to provide protection for young women in the workplace. When the role of the mentor the woman takes the man, the relationship between them can be broken "sexual attraction to each other". Research D. Levinson showed that in contrast to men, women longer are in a period of apprenticeship and continue to be newcomers until they reach middle age.
assessing their own work a woman in a largely focused on the praise or negative evaluation by other actors. No less important compared with the assessment of professional competence for women is to assess their personal qualities, including physical strengths and weaknesses. For men becomes the defining evaluation of their professional activity.
The desire for professional success in many women is contradictory, called "conflict fear of success". Professional success is often in women anxiety, doubt in their own femininity and ability to implement the role of mother and wife. Cultural traditions, as a rule, increase this alarm, forming a mutually exclusive choice of women in relation to work and family. The absence of external pressure traditionoriented occupations leads to a drastic reduction of fear of success.
In the course of professional adaptation in women at the forefront of socio-psychological aspect, whereas men's professional activity. Even through the same professional activity, men and women relate differently to it. Can you give an example (PL. 1) described E. P. Ilyin, in relation to differentiate the importance of different "medical quality" male doctors and female doctors.
Table 1. Gender differentiation importance of medical qualities
| Performance indicator medical qualities in women | Performance indicator medical qualities in men |
| Humanism - 4, 83 | Responsibility - 4, 76 |
| Kindness - 4, 82 | Call of duty - 4, 68 |
| Responsibility - 4, 81 | Kindness - 4, 6 |
| Responsiveness - 4, 80 | Humanism - 4, 59 |
| Courtesy - 4, 79 | Responsiveness - 4, 58 |
| Sensitivity - 4, 77 | Sensitivity - 4, 51 |
| Call of duty - 4, 74 | Courtesy - 4, 49 |
| Sorry - 4, 61 | Restraint - 4, 41 |
| Compassion - 4, 57 | Sorry - 4, 36 |
| Regret - 4, 46 | The harmony of the senses - 4, 31 |
| Restraint - 4, 32 | Compassion - 4, 24 |
| The harmony of the senses - 4, 27 | Regret - 4, 20 |
In General male health professionals in the foreground are the responsibility, duty, restraint, and women - emptynest.
Russian psychologist A. E. Chirikov leads with
ravnitelnaya the characteristics of business and personal qualities men and women.
Women the first position (in descending order of importance) are the following qualities and skills:
- the ability to compromise, be flexible in negotiations, taking into account the position of other parties;
- confidence in himself and his mission;
- the ability to act in situations of conflict and threat risk;
- constant willingness to change, innovations;
- the ability to make choices;
- ability to effectively utilize the talents and skills of others;
- sober attitude to innovation, healthy conservatism;
- the ability to withstand the pressure and pressure, to defend their position;
- the ability to live in the present, "here and now";
Men noted the following leading qualities and skills:
- always ready for changes and innovations;
- the ability, if necessary, to impose their position;
- the ability to feel free and to benefit within the accepted limits and regulations;
- ability to effectively utilize the talents and skills of others;
- the ability to use others ' ideas to realize their goals;
- the ability to act in situations of conflict and threat risk;
- the ability to impress, to establish and maintain relationships with other people;
- confidence in himself and his mission;
- the ability to withstand the pressure and pressure, defending his position.
Men in business dominate force more demonstrative, abilities to act in situations of uncertainty and threat risk effectively use other people. Women thrive ability to compromise, confident, flexible behavior in different situations.
In business, women often continue to implement feminine conservative start, seeking a rational ispolzovaniya, to prevent conflicts and to stabilize the organization. Men are more likely to become "players" in the business, focusing on the achievement of the objective, specific and significant result, rivalry, creative self-realization. Men are more prone to risk and innovation. The other path could lead to the flourishing of the organization and to its defeat.
Women and men often differ
styles implement the same activity, including management. Women more often than men, tend to use a democratic leadership style. Women managers are focused on the group, they are characterized by contact, ability to communicate, delegate authority. A female leader is able to motivate subordinates to sverhozhirenie, to form the professional self-esteem. Male leaders more likely to use authoritarian strategy, reliance on authority, directively, control.
One of the manifestations of differentiation in styles of management is
the difference in the nature of leadership among men and women. Studies show that men are more likely to implement the business model of leadership (the desire for power, domination, formation of goals, strategic development), and women - social (focus on communication, interaction, resolving interpersonal relationships). E. P. Il'in the results of foreign researchers, who believe that a female leader in a male team can play one of four informal roles:
1. "mother" is expected of her informal support, not business activity;
2. "temptress" for the head, causing resentment among fellow-men;
3. toys, mascot" - nice, but not a business woman, lucky;
4. "iron lady" with Nejinskaya rigidity, as a result it is the most isolated from the group.
A number of studies of leadership was identified that the role of the leader is traditionally perceived as masculine. Therefore, in the case of a woman, the leader of the initially formed the situation of role discrepancy, forming internal and external conflict. To mitigate such a conflict could women demonstrating leadership style that focuses on the development of the relationship, not the problem.
In a situation of stress
men and women leaders usually behave differently: men managers tend to fall into dictatorship, to withdraw into themselves, and women often resort to the advice, can you share your problems with others. Men and ensini experiencing the same emotions, but Express them differently.
An important issue is differentiated
the approach to the assessment of labour men and women. Regardless of the objective results of the labor of women in many countries receive for their work for lower wages; they are provided with less information, and the deadlines are tighter. Without any objective reason women is attributed to lack of competence, lack of logic and claims, aspirations for promotion. To become a leader, the woman has to overcome more obstacles than men. In the words of American specialists, "for women, the path to power involves overcoming numerous obstacles, and for men - with the implementation of numerous opportunities."
With the development of society, the traditional picture begins to blur, but hidden discrimination against women continues to persist. The reasons for this are the different factors. In the psychology of management was formed several points of view on the causes of gender prejudice:
- People in organizations shall submit to the leaders of the different sexes have different needs, and in relation to women these requirements above. To obtain a managerial position, the woman should demonstrate greater competence.
- Another point of view explains the gender bias in management that due to the small number in the management environment, women are more visible, their characteristics are exaggerated, they are perceived stereotypical. As a female candidate for the presidency - is estimated on the basis of the quickly formed personality, situational, role stereotypes in information processing. Psychologists N. Rigger and as Galligan, examined data from surveys of women-managers, suggested that the behaviour and performance "token women" meticulously analyzed and can be judged by higher standards than those that exist for men. Similarly, women leaders may experience in their work strong pressure, under the pressure of high expectations from the organizational environment.
- Psychoanalytic approach to women's leadership evaluates it as a manifestation of female inferiority and jealousy towards the man, the desire to overcome the inferiority complex.
- Some researchers believe that the Foundation of successful leadership is the ability to establish strong positive relationships with other people. These relationships are formed on the basis of similarity (assimilation) of group members with each other. This, from their point of view, is the issue of gender differences.
A woman in a man's work hard to build a positive relationship and to achieve leadership in the first place in this case, the face is not business quality.
The skeptical attitude of the society towards women's ability to be the head causes them to resort to defensive strategies (called gender management):
- to spend more time and effort on the job;
to use specifically women's ways of conducting business negotiations with men (coquetry, downplaying their abilities);
- apply the mask, trying to hide underneath your emotional and personal life, not to get the label inefficient worker.
However, there are also contradictory data showing that women leaders are less susceptible to the "failure" with them more productively addressed a variety of controversial issues, they will be more attentive to detail. While women managers is distinguished by a pronounced dominance, emotional stability, social boldness and desire for self, ability to establish good business relations.
In fact, gender differences obviously inferior individual. In the course of numerous studies conducted in the late 80-ies, it was found that men and women are much more similar properties than the differences. Moreover, many of the really existing differences can be changed in the course of training, with a change of lifestyle and social expectations.
Source:
Elitarium
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